Chapter 2

(1662) Henry IX dies. The reign of James begins. (The naming of monarchs is now changed to represent Britain, Henry was re-numbered Henry I, James will be James I)

Mathematical renaissance, led by Newton and Leibnitz, included the rediscovery of calculus. Unlike in the Original Time Line (OTL), Newton's obsession with religion has no parallel here and he continues his workings in mathematics until his death in 1727.

The last Ottoman incursion into Christian Europe is thrown back by the Holy League of Austria, Franconia, Swabia, Poland and France. The resulting war frees Hungary and Transylvania.

The Cossack Hetmanate defeats and absorbs the Crimean Tatars during this time wiping out the Tatar's Islamic roots in the process.

Lithuania joins the Northern Alliance.

The Colonial Empire continues to grow. Settlers in British North America now top 500,000. New settlements are made in the Caribbean, including Bermuda.

The states bordering the Baltic Sea form the Baltic Union, a mutual trading and defence pact.

(1681) James I dies of pneumonia. He is succeeded by Henry II.

The Charter of the East India Company is renewed, provisioning it with the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas. By 1689, the Company was arguably a "nation" in the Indian mainland. It was independently administering the vast presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay and possessed a formidable and intimidating military strength. From 1698 the company was entitled to use the motto "Auspicio Regis et Senatus Britannia" meaning, "Under the patronage of the King and Parliament of Britain".

The first working steam engine is invented in Edinburgh. The device is soon copied and in use throughout the Northern Alliance and beyond.

A resurgent France tries to reconquer Normandy aided by the Holy League. The resulting war draws in the rest of the Northern Alliance and is fought over the next 4 years, leaving much of southern Europe devastated. Louis XIV of France is dragged from his residence in Orleans and hung by the mob. France descends into anarchy for the next 2 years to re–emerge as a republic. During this time the Kingdom of Brittany, after the murder of their King and royal family, ask for and receive commonwealth status within the British Union.

The breakdown of order in Europe, particularly in the defeated Holy League, leads to a complete restructuring of many countries. The rulers of the Holy League become increasingly autocratic as often only a strong hand at the "helm of state" avoids total anarchy.

The Spanish Empire now includes all of South America below Panama except Nuovo Italia and Dutch Recife.

William Prince of Orange dies. His marriage, though happy, was childless. The Netherlands petitions Henry II to become their monarch with the Netherlands becoming the 5th Kingdom of the Britannic Union. This only made Henry II their king; the Dutch government remained autonomous.

During this time most historians date the beginning of the industrial revolution.

The first experimental balloon flights take place in The Netherlands.

The Plains wars begin in North America. Britain applies the same methodology of allying with a suitable tribe and assisting them to wipe out or enslave their enemies as it had done previously.

The development of rifling in guns begins with experiments in Boston.

The French Republic founders as economic crisis after crisis causes massive inflation. Power after a state of terror is finally seized by Stefan Favereau and his Committee of Public Safety. Though brutal and vicious he does stabilise the regime and is declared dictator for life or as he was often referred to personally, Potentat Favereau. The regime is known as the Dictature du Prolétariat.

Russian attempts to settle in Alaska are deliberately hampered by Royal Naval ships of the Pacific squadrons. This eventually led to the treaty of Moscow, ceding the area to Britain at a cost of £3,000,000.

Edmond Halley demonstrates a prototype diving bell.

The Swedish colonisation of OTL Australia continues. They are joined by many others from the Baltic Union looking for a new life.

(1710) Death of Henry II. He is succeeded by James II.

British/Dutch colonial efforts centre on Africa. Exploration of the interior begins after the discovery of diamonds and gold in the southern interior.

Spain invades Morocco in an attempt to stop piracy from various cities along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. The war against part of the Ottoman Empire draws troops from Libya and Egypt to fight the Spanish; however a series of heavy defeats leads to an Ottoman withdrawal. Spain however respects the borders of the British colony of Tangiers.

The Great Northern war between Russia and the Baltic Union (comprising of Sweden, Denmark, The Baltic Federation and Lithuania) starts. Russian attempts to seize the Baltic States from Sweden are thwarted by a series of victories by the Baltic Union, aided and assisted by Britain and The Netherlands, despite initial Russian gains over a war lasting 17 years. Further Russian attempts to conquer the Cossack Hetmanate are also driven back with Northern Alliance aid. The eventual victory leaves the Baltic Union in control of Novgorod and its environs.

A prototype cotton stripping machine is developed in India and demonstrated in British North America. Soon cotton as a cash crop is being developed in some southern provinces. The work is labour intensive and slavery becomes the accepted way to get workers.

The British East India Company and Dutch East Indies Company merge holdings, creating a common market for both.

Newton and the clockmaker George Graham resolve the longitude problem for British shipping. It is Newton's last great achievement and he dies shortly after.

The French Dictature du Prolétariat is declared hereditary with control of the regime now being handed down from father to son. France rejoins the Holy League at this time.

A New Parliamentary building is attached to the British Parliament to house members of the new Imperial Parliament. They were drawn from various provinces and other nations of the Commonwealth.

(1727) James II dies and is succeeded by Robert I.

Witchcraft laws are removed from the statutes of the British Commonwealth; it is no longer lawful to execute someone found guilty of witchcraft, though it remains unlawful to practice it.

The population of British North America is now over 1,000,000, mostly on the eastern coast, though the population of Henricia (OTL California and Baja California) is now over 75,000. Population is spurred by various dissident groups fleeing persecution in southern Europe and the Russian Empire.

The first condensing steam engine is produced by Henry Franklin in New Amsterdam. The machines are used to drive spinning and weaving machines in the burgeoning factories of Britain, Holland and North America.

There is further Britannic-Dutch expansion in India and China. Almost half of India is "owned" by Britain and the Netherlands. China is struggling to maintain its independence in the wave of British and Dutch mercantile endeavours.

Isolation of Japan ends as a well-trained (by Britain) army lands in Korea to carve out new territories for Japanese expansion. Much of the British culture has rubbed off on the Japanese over the last century and although they see a dominant role for themselves in the years ahead, there is far less in the way of elitism in their personal dealings with their conquered neighbours.

John Wesley, a leading and impassioned Lutheran minister, founds the "Society for the Abolition of Slavery within the Empire". Though making little headway at first through the intransigence of men grown rich on enslavement of others, there are soon branches in many large cities.

The first steam driven boat is demonstrated on the Thames.

Britain's inland waterways are massively expanded during this time to carry heavy goods across the country.

New Zealand (South Island) now has the largest population of Jews outside Europe, numbering almost 150,000. Florida has 50,000 and Jamaica 12,000.

Experiments with electricity produce the battery in Savoy.

The Royal Household at Kensington is the first house in Britain to have domestic gas lighting.

Major Parliamentary reforms are undertaken to extend the franchise and regulate the influence of the King. Though opposed by the Royalist Party, they gain the assent of Parliament and hence of the King, who is loath to interfere with matters of state that do not involve the loss of privilege of the people of the land. Most historians date the formation of the modern constitutional monarchy from this point.

The piety of a new King in Spain allows a rebonding with the Holy See in Rome; it also allows the rise of the inquisition in Spain as years of relative tolerance are swept away with the new regime.

Savoy, Venice and Switzerland tentatively ally in a joint economic partnership.

There is war in central Germany as many smaller states are forcibly consolidated into the Holy League. Although there is no religious persecution as such, Protestants are not allowed to hold high office or proselytise. Many who oppose this head north to the German speaking states of the Baltic Union or take ship to North America and the German settled regions there.

(1765) King Robert I dies and is succeeded by King John I.

The "6 years war" is fought out in India against the Holy League controlled areas, resulting in a complete victory for Britain and the Netherlands. The only other competing nation on the Indian sub-continent is Denmark.

Britannic-Dutch influence also increases in Koxingan China and all ports on the Chinese coast. Several attempts by Manchu China to drive foreigners off her soil fail, either through direct intervention, bribes or internal revolt.

The Britannic-Dutch Imperium is named in official documents during this time. The word Imperium is used to distinguish it from other Empires.

The armies of the Imperium are now being equipped with rifle squads for skirmishing; full use of rifles does not come into force for decades though, owing to the loading speed being too slow.

The Japanese Shogunate invades Manchuria, and consolidates its rule over the next 10 years.

Russian attempts to annex the Cossack Hetmanate of the Ukraine are thwarted by Baltic Union intervention.

The Holy League invades Algeria and occupies the country. Any rebellion brings about brutal reprisals, though it takes 4 years before the country is deemed to be secure for colonisation by Europeans.

Greece revolts against the Ottoman Empire at this time and, assisted by Savoy and Venice, manages to secure its independence.

The first railways are introduced in Britain. At first they are only novelties, though the use of them for freight and passengers has occurred to many investors.

The Society for the Abolition of Slavery within the Empire grows from strength to strength during this time; even slave owners can see the writing on the wall and begin to look for other means of running their plantations.

The first commercial steamships come into use. They are used mostly as coasters as their range was not great, their ability to sail against the wind is the determining factor. Though within 6 years the first steamship (the aptly named Henry the Great) sails the Atlantic from Bristol to New Amsterdam.

The Erie Canal is built, connecting Lake Erie in the west to the Hudson River in the east.

(1793) King John I dies and is succeeded by King Henry III.

The Imperium Parliament debates the laws on slavery and passes a recommendation to all colonial Parliaments that it should be phased out as soon as possible. There is considerable debate over the issue, with many of the southern provinces in British North America threatening to secede from the Imperium should any such act be passed by the American Parliament. The issue is finally resolved by the slave owners being recompensed by the state for all slaves owned at a value of up to 70% of their value, with the freed slaves being paid a wage and having to work off the rest of the value over a period of time not exceeding 10 years and that no man or woman can be born into slavery from the date of the passing of the law.

(1795) King Henry III dies from cholera and is succeeded by his son, King William I, a young man of only 17.

Spain (with the covert support of the Holy League) invades and attempts to seize the British province of Panama, citing the British emancipation of the slaves as breach of terms in the free transport of goods across the Panamanian King's highway. (Any slave reaching British territory was a free man; this included transported slaves to the mines in South America by Spain). A massive armada carrying 40,000 men lands out of the reach of Port Henry and proceeds to attack the forts on the approaches to the city. Further incursions are made from both the North and the South of the Province. Caught off guard, the defenders still manage to put up a fierce fight and despite one fort being taken the other two hold out. Still the highway is cut and the two cities at either end put under siege.

Near Greater Normandy a large French army begins manoeuvres just outside the borders of that Duchy and the Dutch border of Flanders. Likewise the Armies of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE, comprising Austria and Hungary with bits of southern Germany and some northern Yugoslavia) together with Poland also move close to the borders of the Baltic Union and Denmark as well as Estonia and Lithuania. Though not threatening in any way they do tie troops down that could be better used elsewhere.

Upon being given the news of the Spanish invasion, British North America assembles an army near the Mexican/Spanish border of the Rio Grande and begins probing attacks into Spanish territories.

British and Dutch warships attack any Spanish shipping they can find, although a surprising number of Spanish ships now fly French colours. Spanish armies invade Henricia, seizing New London under the nose of its defenders simply by marching into the fort during the hours of darkness plus seizing the Governor and other worthies in their sleep.

A large Spanish invasion of Recife begins, driving the Dutch slowly out of the province.

In the Mediterranean, British warships fight a series of battles with Spanish shipping and also land troops on Majorca to seize the island. Spanish attempts to seize Tangier come to naught as the Imperium, knowing the danger to that province, has spent years making it just about impregnable from sea or land.

In the Caribbean the British drive off an invasion of Jamaica.

The second year of the war began with Britain and the Dutch very much on the back foot, though good news was forthcoming with the report of a successful taking of Monterrey by Colonial forces.

Spain was unable still to take Panama despite having control of the land. Both Freeports could easily be supplied by sea and the fortress guns outranged anything the Spanish had on the ground. Spanish troops also began to suffer from a low level guerrilla war as the colonists took every opportunity to hinder, confuse or kill them.

British troops from India managed to land in Henricia to the north of New London and began to march south to retake the city, only to find the Spanish well dug in and waiting for them. Having made one attempt to storm the Spanish lines and failing, the British set in for a siege.

The North American fleet sallied against Spanish warship attempts to raid up and down the eastern seaboard. Though much lighter than the Spanish, they outnumber them and generally make a good account of themselves.

Spain does itself no favours by sailing into Japanese waters to attack British vessels in Hirado harbour. Despite sinking over 30 merchantmen, they also sink several Japanese merchant ships and set fire to the port itself. Outraged, the Japanese declare war on Spain.

A second British landing in Henricia to the south of New London is made; a Spanish led Colonial army from New Spain meets and defeats them with overwhelming odds. This army in turn attacks the British northern army but is repulsed with heavy losses to the well dug in British and Indian troopers.

Colonial troops forge deeper into New Spain heading for Mexico City, driving the native levies before them.

A combined Britannic-Dutch fleet annihilates a Spanish resupply fleet entering the Caribbean, enabling Panama to hold on to its territory.

The war in the Mediterranean swings one way then another as neither side is able to gain an advantage, though the Spanish do manage to liberate Majorca.

A large Japanese fleet land troops in the Philippines, who then march on Manila.

The Dutch are completely driven out of Recife, returning the province to Spanish/Portuguese rule.

The Spanish land troops in the Cape Province, who, though unable to take the cities, cause much damage throughout the province.

The third year of the war begins with a dissident uprising amongst the Afrancesados (Francophile agitators) natives of the Greater Normandy and Flanders areas. Despite heroic efforts by the defenders, most of the border areas, though not the fortresses, are overrun within the first few weeks. The Afrancesados aims of driving the British and Dutch into the sea did not take place. British and Dutch troops sweeping down from the north soon had the rebellions in the rear areas under control, arresting many and then driving south to the border.

In Henricia, a landing by Sikh troops to the south of New London is made, successfully cutting off the Spanish resupply lines to the city and forcing the defenders to abandon the city and make a fighting withdrawal south towards the Border of New Spain. When the British enter the now open city they are met by a horrifying sight, row after row of burnt corpses on stakes, marking attempts by the inquisition to forcibly convert the populace to Roman Catholicism. This, coupled with the deliberate withholding of food and rations from the citizens, left the British and Indians to find only 1,017 pitiful survivors out of a city of almost 25,000.

The Imperium was enraged beyond belief by the news and the war took on a new ominous turn as quarter was now neither asked nor given.

The Colonial army reaches Mexico City and sacks it, burning it to the ground in reprisals for New London. Any Roman Catholic priest they can find is now hung, though Roman Catholics serving in their own army were surprisingly well treated. Civilians are allowed to flee from the army, though any act deemed to be hostile is now brutally suppressed.

In the Holy League, the news of the Spanish atrocities isolates them from the other members and aid is now not forthcoming. Many still look on with grim satisfaction at the British finally getting a come-uppance for their (supposed) arrogance over the years.

A Dutch army lands in Panama and begins to drive the Spanish back from Port Henry. Once again they find the brutality of the invaders has exceeded the bounds of decency. Also found is the wholesale destruction of the King's Highway by demolition charges as well as the deliberate blowing up of dykes and raised waterways to cover the Spanish retreat.

The Colonial army marches from the remains of Mexico City towards Cordoba, fighting many minor skirmishes on the way.

The Combined British, Indian and Sikh army pursues the retreating Spanish down the coast into New Spain, finally meeting them and destroying them outside Cuidad Obregon.

The British Navy in the Mediterranean manages to dislodge the Spanish garrison from Minorca. Although they are too few in number to hold the island, they do completely destroy the castle of St. Philip.

The Japanese, having laid siege to and captured Manila, continue their conquest of the island, being joined by many natives in a general uprising against Spanish rule.

The fourth year of the war finally sees the Britannic-Dutch Imperium gain the upper hand over Spain. Despite her initial gains in North America and Panama, the Spanish are now fighting a defensive war in New Spain and throughout her empire. The army landed in Panama is now in full retreat from the Dutch who are not minded to take any prisoners.

In New Spain the Colonial army isolates Cordoba and moves further south, always keeping in touch with its supply chain. A second colonial army enters New Spain moving from town to town and garrisoning them. Sweeping patrols of lancers and dragoons root out any bandit or rebel activity coming down harshly on any disorder.

In Spain itself, an attack on Cadiz with marines then fire-ships, torches much of the Spanish fleet resting there along with over a third of the town.

To complete Spain's woes, a British and Dutch army lands in Figueira da Foz and marches in to seize Coimbra.

Due to the loss of income caused by the loss of the Panamanian Isthmian Highway, the British government introduces an income tax of 2%, promising it to be only a short term measure.

The Japanese complete their conquest of Luzon and spread out to the other islands. Despite the arrogance of the Spanish settlers, the Japanese behave impeccably unless provoked.

The fifth year of war brings Spain to the negotiating table. Its armies in North America and Panama have been annihilated and some of the losses in the East Indies were crippling. The talks involving the British, Dutch and Japanese were harsh on Spain, though, given the circumstances, understandable.

Spain lost New Spain to the Imperium and the Philippines to Japan and also had to pay massive indemnities to all countries for the loss of trade and the damage to their economies and infrastructures. In return a treaty was signed stating that the Imperium would not interfere with Spain in South America save only in the case of Nuovo Italia which was extended west to the Pacific to act as a buffer state between Panama and Spanish South America. Recife, having been stripped of Dutch settlers, was left in Spanish hands with the settlers being compensated and given land in New Spain or as it was to become known Mexicala. Control over Mexicala was done in the usual British business-like fashion, with nobles and any other civic leaders being given a chance to pledge allegiance to the Emperor William and if not, being given passage to South America.

Local democracy would be introduced at a later date, after schools and academies had been opened to educate many of the people living there. The various districts of Mexicala did not gain full Provincial status in the Imperium for another 20 years. During this time there were many rebellions and insurrections by Spanish sympathisers and indigenous locals, all to no avail as the Britannic-Dutch Imperium was there for the long term. Whole villages of suspected rebels would find themselves rounded up and transported out of the country. The same was true for any Roman Catholic priest found aiding or abetting rebellion, though freedom of religion remained.

London has a sewerage system built, other towns in the Imperium follow suit.

A patent was given to John Barber, an American, for the first true gas turbine. His invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage.

Spain joins and becomes the major player in the Holy League. Though hostile to the Northern Alliance, the League is mostly involved in the conquest colonisation and consolidation of northern Africa.

Discovery of gold in Henricia causes a massive influx of colonists into the province. In 6 years almost 300,000 people arrive.

First crude telegraphs are trialled in Wales between Cardiff and Swansea.

The London to Rochester railway is opened to passengers. At 30 miles long it calls at Gravesend, Bexley and Central London opposite the Tower. There are plans to extend it to Dover via Canterbury. Partially funded by the government (to allow transport to the naval yards at Chatham) and running 8 very basic locomotives on a 7' wide track. It is the first passenger carrying railway in the world. Within 50 years this had grown to 250,000 miles of track laid and over 90,000 locomotives.

Hawaii joins the Imperium.

John Evangelist Purkinje, a professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 fingerprint patterns. This is discussed in the Royal Society in Britain and a study begun to ascertain whether or not fingerprints could be used as a means of personal identification of individuals.

Jacob Perkins from British North America designs the first commercially feasible refrigerator using the cooling properties of liquefied ammonia.

A prototype steamship, coupling an advanced Branca/Barber turbine with a propeller, is trialled by the British Navy. It reaches an astonishing 25 knots against the wind. The Navy is so impressed that it calls for a new class of warships to take advantage of the new technology.

The Ottoman war between the Holy League and the Ottomans begins. Lasting 3 years, the Ottoman armies, despite being outmatched and out gunned by their adversaries, can only be driven back slowly on every front. In the end though the vassal states of the Ottomans in Europe revolt, causing a massive Ottoman withdrawal back to the areas around Constantinople. The lack of success of the Holy League draws a response from the Cossack Hetmanate of the Ukraine (CHU) as they move south to protect the orthodox religion majority nations on their borders, keeping Wallachia, Moldavia and Bulgaria out of the hands of the Holy League and thus preventing the Holy League from approaching Constantinople. Despite calls from Austria, the Holy League did not attempt to attack CHU troops or the nations they occupied and settled instead for "liberating" Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. Attempts to coerce Macedonia and Albania into the League after the withdrawal of the Ottomans failed as Albania allied itself with Venice and Macedonia with Greece.

In the south, Spanish and French troops conquered Libya, though attempts to seize the Nile Delta failed due to supply problems and veteran Ottoman troops holding on fanatically behind strong fixed defences.

Repairs to the Panamanian Isthmian Highway are completed and at one side of the road tracks are laid for a railway line to connect the ports. Plans are produced for a shipping canal but discarded as the cost in man hours is highly prohibitive.

The internal combustion engine is developed by Jean le Pen in Orleans, it remains a curiosity for many years.

(1863) Death of William I. He is succeeded by John II.

John's reign sees the rush to colonise Africa and Asia reach its peak, with European nations frequently involved in low level fighting over territory and bribing native tribes to drive out the opposition. The favoured Britannic-Dutch method being to side with one tribe in its fight with another and assist them to conquer their neighbours for a share of the land and spoils. Once integrated however the natives are educated and brought into the bureaucracy and gradually brought into positions of power within the province.

The biological scientist Christian Rasmussen in the University of Copenhagen publishes a book outlining a theory of evolution. The furore caused when printed throughout the world carries on to today, where his work is still banned from being taught in certain countries.

Despite controversy in Britain and throughout the Imperium, his theories gained acceptance and were subsequently added to the curricula of many universities and colleges.

The Imperial Parliament at this time develops the tiered system of governance. Those who were developed (by Imperial standards) the highest gained dominion status within the Imperium with complete self-rule and control over their foreign and internal tax policies; they also select their own governors and representatives to the Imperial Parliament. The second tier consists of provinces who have reached a state of self-governance with their own Parliaments but who are not yet ready to run their own foreign affairs or taxation, which are controlled by the governor appointed by the Imperium. Those in the third tiers are the new provinces under direct rule of the Imperium.

It is now possible to travel by King's Highway from New Amsterdam in the east of British North America to New London on the west coast. A rail link between the two is also under construction, though getting past the Rockies is proving an almost insurmountable task. The introduction of nitro-glycerine based explosives however is allowing some progress to be made.

The Imperial armies are now all equipped with breech loading rifles and experimentation is taking place with rapid firing multi-barrelled rotary rifles (Gatling Guns).

The British navy produces the world's first ironclad; other navies soon follow suit.

Steam powered cars make their appearance on the roads of the Imperium, though only the rich can afford one.