Chapter 11

“Probably not, Carol? It IS Carol, isn’t it?” With identical twins, the question is vital, but sometimes accurate.

“Spot-on, cuz. So what delayed you today?”

“Research at the library, before we left the university. We have a bunch of printouts to go over, related to your problem today.”

“Good, but you need to get prepared for dinner. It will be ready for the table in about ten minutes. Holly had this idea for chicken casserole with dumplings, and the dumplings were ready fifteen minutes ago, so we fished them out and laid them in a smaller covered dish before putting them back in the oven, to keep them from going too soggy. We put the serving plates in to warm them slightly before we dish it all out.” The table was already laid for the meal, and the whole family were soon helping themselves to the casserole. Frances explained to Fiona and the twins how their glass research had delayed their departure for home, and apologised. Fiona quickly dismissed the apology. “You don’t need to apologise, Frances. Research should never be apologised for!” Holly was querulous.

“Why did you need to do research on glass? Was it anything to do with what happened here today?” Frances looked to Reg to reply.

“To some extent, Holly. I wondered whether we could add a clear protective layer to reinforce the glass of the windows, thus the hunting around for facts on glass. We have various copies of things we found, but we still have to read them over, to educate ourselves on the topic.”

“Oh? Can we do some of the reading? We would like to make ourselves useful, Frances.” Frances glanced at Reg and got an amused flicker of his eyes, and replied, “I don’t see why not, Holly. You girls are important in defending this house.”

“Goody! You guys can start, while Carol and I get the table cleared and the dishes washed and put away.” When they returned to the living room, the whole family were clustered round the large table, each with a photocopy in hand. Carol demanded to know what they had found so far. Erika told them, “I found that the first glass was as a result of a meteorite impact in the desert, fusing sand into glass. By glass, I mean stuff you might see through. The black stuff, obsidian, is volcanic glass, and it provided the sharpest edges for tools and spear points.”

“Yes, and that was tens of thousands of years ago,” added Freda. “In more recent times, pieces of that meteoritic glass were used for various objects. Glass beads were being used far back in time; 12,000 B.C. has been suggested. Even a pendant from Tutankhamun’s tomb had within it a scarab beetle made out of glass; glass was that special. Ancient Egyptians made glass containers by making a core of sand and coating it with molten glass. The core dried and could be poured out. Eventually the idea of blowing glass became prevalent, but the glass was various colours due to impurities.” Frances gestured for Prudence to speak.

“The next major improvement was when the Romans learned how to make glass that was purer and therefore clearer than naturally-occurring glass. They used it to make windows, and more and more glass bottles were manufactured by Roman glassmakers. They learned they could add chemicals to make specific colours in glass.” Holly asked, “How did they make window glass?” Reg contributed, “The first flat glass, for windows or anything else, was essentially blown bottle glass that is cut with large scissors while still flexible, and the two sides pushed down to become flat. It never worked very well, for the curvature was still inside the glass as it cooled, so the clarity you want is not there.”

“You couldn’t make large sheets of glass that way, either, I would think,” commented Carol.

“Correct, Carol,” declared Reg. “Well observed. That was why glass developers aimed for a float glass system, and someone eventually invented such a technique. According to my reading, to make it cost-effective it had to be a continuous casting process, which made it extremely difficult to keep the glass flat as it cooled while it moved along some kind of conveyor. The famous Henry Bessemer invented a means whereby the newly formed glass was sent through rollers to flatten it, but that proved not to be a good solution, so hand-blown processes continued to be most used. Larger panes were made by blowing molten glass inside an iron cylinder, then the ends were cut off, and a cut made down the long axis; then the sides teased down towards flat. It then was reheated until it was flat, then allowed to cool.” Fiona asked, “What about these old pub windows with thick circles in the middle?” Prudence had read about them. “These were from crown glass, Fiona. Glass was blown into a large bubble, then the top pierced to produce a bowl shape. This was then spun to make the glass turn into a large circle. The outer parts of the circle, being thinnest and clearest, were cut for windows, but the last and thickest bit, at the centre – known as the bullseye – was the worst so the cheapest to buy. It suited the pubs, for while allowing light in, they effectively obscured the goings-on inside.”

“Neat trick; the cheapest glass producing the results you wanted!”

“And why not?” Reg challenged her. That is always the target: get the best solution at the cheapest price.” Frances came in here. “What about what you wanted, Reg? A means of protecting window glass from missiles, either thrown stones or airgun pellets, wasn’t it? Surely standard double-glazing does the job pretty well?” Reg nodded to indicate partial agreement, but explained, “Double-glazing is indeed much tougher than single-glazing, Frances, but it is singularly susceptible to damage from high-powered impact. An airgun pellet fired from a couple of metres away would probably break through both layers, either leaving a hole and some crazing, or causing the glass to shatter. Fired from further back, say, ten metres, there would probably be nothing more than an impact crater in the outer layer. However, if fired from a rifle, the pellet velocity would be higher, so you would get the pellet coming through the glass from much further back than a couple of metres; how far back would depend on the gun. I don’t intend to take risks with my family, Frances, so I want better.”

“So what did you research, Reg?” He blushed a little, and admitted, “Actually, I was looking at solar panels and how they work. I had the idea of using a solar panel to front the window and act as an extra layer of protection.” Frances frowned. “But I thought solar panels were black, so don’t let light through?” Reg admitted, “You are correct, my darling; I got it wrong. I had the thought that there was some way the panel could be made to allow light through. I was thinking of stained glass windows at the time. I wondered, if the panel was perforated, we could get enough light through; but to achieve that, the light getting through the window would be much reduced, and the efficiency of the panel to produce electricity would be reduced as well. So there is no benefit to be had from either viewpoint. I am afraid I blew it, girls!” Fiona commented, “Wow! The great Reginald Robertson is not perfect after all!” Freda snapped, “Enough of the snide remarks, Fiona. Our Reg doesn’t need that!” Fiona’s face fell, and she explained, “It was not meant to be nasty, Freda. It just made me realise that Reg is human, and can make mistakes just like the rest of us. I like it that he is not perfect, as he is easier to love that way.” Freda’s glare softened as she took this in. “Very well, Fiona. I take the point. I apologise for assuming the worst of you; but be careful with your words, in case you hurt someone unintentionally.” Fiona went to say more, but refrained. Frances came back into the discussion.

“I had a look at glass in medieval times. That was when stained glass started being used for windows, though it seems that excavations in Italy have found coloured glass from as far back as the 7th century, suggesting it was in regular use by then. Glass in cathedral windows show that a wide variety of colours could be introduced into glass. Apparently some colour changes were dues to temperatures in the furnaces, while others were from metallic additives – iron, manganese, and copper were the main inclusions, primarily as oxides. While most medieval glass was made using forest glass (which employed beech wood ash), earlier glass used soda as the alkali. This was the base for a strong blue glass. Some evidence exists for early medieval blue window glass produced by melting old Roman tesserae, but I don’t think we need to look into that avenue for glassmaking. Incidentally, a glassmaker was originally a glasenwright or glasswright.” Reg interrupted, “This description of coloured glass development doesn’t help with getting a strong glass to resist attackers. What about toughened glass? Don’t they use that for car windscreens?” Prudence was quick to jump in. “Reg, toughened glass for cars is designed to craze: to break into small pieces, held together by thin outside layers. It is then easy to punch through for visibility, so not much help for security purposes.”

“I see,” Reg saw the argument, and dropped it. “So what kind of glass is used for security barriers?” Prudence replied, “As far as I can see, laminated security glass is the best option, if you can afford it. It has two sheets of float glass with a middle layer of a flexible polyvinyl butyral that any broken glass will adhere to. It stops most burglary attempts, for even after cracking, the window stays intact in its frame. The police recommend a 6.4mm size for most security needs.” Reg asked, “So toughened glass is out entirely?”

“Not entirely. It seems that for security glass, with the toughened glass sandwiched between security films, the glass breaks internally but will stay intact as a unit and will resist most attacks for a considerable time.”

“How do the prices compare?”

“I have not investigate that fully. To be up to date, I’d have to do an online search of the suppliers, but it seems that laminated is more expensive but does the better job.”

“So that’s our choice?” concluded Reg.

“Not quite, Reg. We have the option of a protective polycarbonate film on the outside of the glass. That adds to the security of the window, but the film is susceptible to abrasion and scratching. That might make it a high-maintenance option, possibly needing replacement if it gets damaged.”

“Okay. If we wanted good window security, it looks like downstairs should be laminated glass, and the upstairs windows should have a protective film. Upstairs windows should not be open to vandalism so much, right?” Frances had been listening closely, and now gave her opinion.

“Reg, what you have just proposed is fine in theory, but damned expensive for an entire building.”

“Sorry, Frances. I was looking at it as a practical exercise, in the hope that the best solution would not be too costly. I think I badly underestimated the outcome.”

“Don’t worry about it, darling. I can have a word with Daddy about upgrading the lower floor windows sometime soon.”

“But Frances, that will cost thousands for all these windows. I saw enough about window costs to know that, at least. I am sorry I mentioned the idea now. I just wanted to help protect my family.”

“I know, dear. We understand your thinking, and desire to help and protect us. We simply need to keep some perspective over that.” Erika inserted, “We love you, Reg, and love that you want to do your best for us; but we will love you whether you do that or not. You don’t have to continually strive to do your best all the time. Being yourself – our loving husband – is quite enough, you darling man.” Reg blushed at the praise, and muttered, “I still want to protect you all, no matter what.” He got up and excused himself to go to his study, claiming he needed to get some work done, but the girls all knew he was hiding his embarrassment from them. They let him go. The next day at university, unsurprisingly, there was no mention of contacting lecturers about a security project. Reg had retreated from his enthusiasm, slightly put off by the result of his misplaced keenness to pursue an idea. He was still moping in class during the afternoon, and his lecturer noticed, commenting, “I see that Mr Robertson must be worn out by his wives, for he is not really with us today!” Reg jerked into action, “Sorry, sir. No, sir, I am not worn out, just downbeat by letting myself run away with a non-viable idea yesterday.” The lecturer replied, “I am sorry to hear that, Mr. Robertson. Perhaps place your concentration on the subject before us, okay?”

“Yes, sir. I will pay attention now, sir.”

“Thank you, Mr. Robertson. I hope all the rest of your colleagues will also give me their full attention, for physics and mathematics are closely interwoven when we look at radio propagation, and so strict attention is essential for understanding the practical implications. We can’t all borrow from other people’s work, such as Marconi did. He was more of a businessman than a true scientist. He deserves his reputation, though, for his activities advanced radio considerably.” Reg argued, “But didn’t he take out the first radio patents, sir?”

“Thank you for your attention, finally, Mr Robertson. Marconi did indeed, but as with many other examples, the first person to take out a patent isn’t necessarily the true inventor of what is patented. Some scientists are more economics-savvy than others, and rush to get a patent and thereby make some money, while others concentrate on the science, on making the idea more completely rounded out, and thereby miss out on a patent.”

“I find that puzzling, sir. Tesla had already demonstrated radio transmission by then, hadn’t he, thus demonstrating prior art, as they call it?”

“True. This is where complications set in. Marconi had his US patent application rejected several times, with Tesla’s prior art and other related patents being cited. Then in 1904 the US Patent Office reversed their decision and granted the patent to Marconi, who by this time had a thriving business in the United States. There was no clear reason ever given for this decision, and it has been suggested that powerful financial interests may have come into play, influencing certain people in the Patent Office. As if that was not enough, politics played a hand in the next turnaround. In 1943, not long after Tesla had died, the US Patent Office switched again, and granted the patent to Tesla. Normally such a change would almost never happen, as the patentee would not benefit. However, this happened at a time when the Marconi Company was trying to sue the US Government for use of its patents in World War One. Because of the change in attribution, from Marconi back to Tesla, the suit naturally fell, as the patents were now under US control. It is amazing what a government Patent Office will decide, when finance is involved. That decision saved the US government a fortune!” The whole class laughed, and the lecturer emphasised, “This is a perfect example of the value of patents, and making sure any patent you apply for is securely based. If and when any of you are thinking of applying for a patent, remember this example. Tesla died in poverty, as he did not hold the radio and power patents that would probably have made him rich. Alexander Fleming never patented penicillin in1928, as he had no idea of its potential application. He had not envisioned it as a human drug to fight diseases. He had also not fully characterised the drug enough to be granted a patent. It took war, and other researchers, Florey and Chain, to get to that point, and then it took a US government laboratory to find a process to scale up production to a usable level for clinical use. Much of our science history is more complicated than at first sight. Take note.”